After recieving the Ten Commandments, Moses records other laws to govern his people and instill social responsibility among them. It seem that he is following Jethro’s advice as he aims to inculcate these rule of thumb on other leaders so they can judge handle minor disputes in their courts. Moses takes this guidance and formulates several laws to maintain order and discipline. These laws do not necessarily come from God, as some, like “an eye for an eye” (Exodus 21:24), seem to directly contradict Jesus’ teachings on “turning the turning the other cheek” (Matthew 5:39). They also appear to be derived from earlier legal traditions, notably the Code of Hammurabi, established by the Babylonian king around three hundred years before the Exodus laws and considered one of the oldest known legal codes.
Laws Regarding Servants
A Hebrew servant must serve for six years and be released in the seventh year without payment. If he was married before servitude, his wife leaves with him, but if he married during servitude, his wife and children remain with the master. If the servant chooses to stay out of love for his master and family, his ear is pierced as a sign of lifelong service.
Women and children were considered the property of men in ancient times. Brides were given in marriage through a barter system where the father received a dowry in exchange for his daughter. Similarly, children were treated as property, belonging to their fathers or masters, as seen in laws where a servant’s wife and children remained with the master if the marriage occurred during servitude.
A man who sells his daughter as a servant must ensure she is treated fairly. If she is chosen as a wife but later rejected, she must be allowed to be redeemed and not sold to foreigners. If given to the master’s son, she must be treated as a daughter. If the master marries another woman, he must still provide the first with food, clothing, and marital rights; otherwise, she is to be set free.
God’s original design for marriage was for a man and a woman to be united as one (Genesis 2:24), but over time, polygamy became a cultural norm. Childbearing was highly valued as a way to expand one’s tribe and secure a lasting legacy. Given that Jacob, the father of Israel, had multiple wives and concubines, polygamy was widely accepted. Rather than immediately prohibiting it, Moses’ laws provided regulations to ensure fairness and responsibility within these relationships.
Personal Injuries
Those who commit murder, attack their parents, or kidnap someone are to be put to death. In cases of injury during a fight, the attacker must compensate the victim for any loss of time or medical care. Slave abuse is addressed, with severe consequences for causing the death of a slave, though if the slave survives, no punishment is required.
However, if it is not done intentionally, but God lets it happen, they are to flee to a place I will designate. – Exodus 21:13-14 (NIV)
Just as Cain was banished after intentionally killing his brother, later on, God designated specific cities of refuge where individuals who had killed someone accidentally could flee to await trial or find safety from those seeking revenge. These cities were set aside for those who committed unintentional killings.
If a pregnant woman is injured during a fight and gives birth prematurely without serious harm, the offender must pay a fine as determined by her husband and the court. However, if there is serious injury, the punishment is to be “life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth,” applying equal retribution for the injury caused. Jesus directly challenged this law, implying that it did not come from God but from human interpretations.
If a slave is injured by their master, they are to be freed as compensation. Laws surrounding animals include the stoning of a bull that kills a person, with the owner held responsible only if the bull had a known history of aggression. The laws also address situations involving uncovered pits and animal injuries, where the owner must compensate for damages.
Property Laws
If someone steals livestock, they must repay significantly more than what was taken—five cattle for an ox and four sheep for a sheep. The laws also address situations like theft at night, where the defender isn’t guilty of bloodshed if they kill the thief, but they are guilty if it happens during the day. Thieves must make restitution, and if they can’t, they are sold to cover the loss.
In cases of damage, such as livestock grazing in another’s field or a fire causing crop damage, the offender must compensate the owner. Additionally, the laws provide guidelines for the safekeeping of property, including when goods or animals are entrusted to a neighbor. If the items are stolen or lost, restitution must be made, or an oath is required if the property was accidentally damaged. These laws emphasize fairness and responsibility in property matters and theft.
Societal Laws
If a man seduces a virgin who is not promised to another, he must pay the bride-price and marry her, though if her father refuses, the man must still pay the bride-price. Bride kidnapping still occurs in several countries today, despite being illegal. It remains prevalent in regions such as Kyrgyzstan, where 12-15% of marriages involve abduction, and is also found in rural areas of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Ethiopia, Nepal, Chad, Armenia, and Georgia. While the practice is outlawed in many of these nations, it continues due to cultural traditions and gender inequality, especially in remote communities.
The law also condemns sorcery, stating that a sorceress must be put to death, and it prescribes the death penalty for anyone who has sexual relations with an animal. Additionally, the laws forbid sacrificing to any god other than the LORD, and emphasize the importance of treating foreigners, widows, and orphans with kindness. Mistreating or oppressing these vulnerable groups is warned against, as God promises to hear their cries and retaliate with severe punishment, including death and the loss of families. When lending money to the needy, one should not charge interest. If taking a neighbor’s cloak as a pledge, it must be returned by sunset, as it is their only covering.
Do not blaspheme God or curse the ruler of your people. – Exodus 22:28 (NIV)
Moses may have instituted this law to maintain discipline and instill fear of divine judgment among the people. By equating a curse against a leader with blasphemy against God, it provided rulers and priests with a tool that was later exploited for their own benefit. Throughout history, many justified their actions by claiming to act on God’s behalf. However, no human should ever be placed on the same level as God, and no creation should receive reverence even remotely comparable to what is due to the Creator.
Furthermore, the Israelites were to offer their first fruits and firstborn sons to God, as well as the firstborn of their cattle and sheep, which should be given on the eighth day. As God’s holy people, they are also instructed not to eat meat from animals killed by wild beasts but to discard it instead.
Justice
The laws governing court proceedings emphasize truthfulness and justice, prohibiting false reports, dishonest testimony, and the distortion of justice through peer pressure or favoritism. They stress fairness, particularly in cases involving the poor, and warn against accepting bribes that can corrupt judgment. Additionally, these laws promote compassion, instructing people to return lost animals even to their enemies and assist those in need. Furthermore, they forbid the oppression of foreigners, reminding the Israelites of their own experience as outsiders in Egypt.
Sabbath
The Sabbath laws emphasize rest, generosity, and devotion to God. Farmland should be cultivated for six years but left fallow in the seventh to provide food for the poor and wild animals. Likewise, work is permitted for six days, but on the seventh day, rest is required to allow workers, animals, and foreigners to be refreshed. The passage also warns against invoking the names of other gods and commands obedience to God’s instructions. Additionally, it introduces the observance of three annual festivals as acts of worship and gratitude.
Festivals
The festival laws required the Israelites to observe three annual celebrations in honor of God. The Festival of Unleavened Bread commemorated their exodus from Egypt, during which they were to eat bread without yeast for seven days. The Festival of Harvest involved offering the firstfruits of their crops in gratitude. The Festival of Ingathering marked the end of the agricultural year when they gathered their harvest. Additional laws prohibited mixing sacrifices with yeast, keeping leftover fat until morning, and cooking a young goat in its mother’s milk.
God’s Promise
God promises to send an angel ahead of the Israelites to guide and protect them on their journey, warning them to obey him without rebellion. If they follow his commands, God will fight their enemies and lead them into the promised land, driving out its inhabitants. They are instructed to destroy foreign idols and worship only God, who will bless them with health, fertility, and long life. God will gradually remove opposing nations to prevent desolation, allowing Israel to grow strong enough to take possession of the land. They must not make treaties or coexist with these nations to avoid being led astray into idol worship.
Despite God’s direct guidance and warnings, the Israelites repeatedly fell back into their old ways. Less than forty days after receiving the commandments, they broke the very first one by making and worshiping the golden calf (Exodus 32). This pattern of disobedience and spiritual backsliding recurs throughout their history—whether in the wilderness, during the time of the judges, or even under the kings. Despite witnessing miracles and receiving divine laws, they often reverted to idol worship and rebellion, highlighting mankind’s desire to sin. Let us learn from their mistakes and give God our whole hearts, rather than just pretending to obey commandments that we don’t truly believe in.
Discussion Questions
- How do these laws appear to conflict with Jesus’ teachings?
- Were women and children viewed as family members or as property?
- Was polygamy a common practice during Moses’ time?
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